Journal of Agriculture, Science and Technology

Economic analysis of smallholder dairy cattle farms: Case study of Nandi and Makueni Counties in Kenya

Menjo Dominic Kiplagat — 2025-01-21

Kenya has the highest annual per capita milk consumption on the African continent (110 litres), and is projected to increase to 130 litres by 2030. This has supported the development of the smallholder dairy production system which supplies 80% of the milk. Dairy farming enhances nutrition and generates income for more than 1.8 million smallholder farmers in Kenya. This study aimed at analysing the economic performance of dairy cattle farms in Nandi and Makueni counties and compare their performances as farms practicing mixed farming and as dairy farming alone, using gross margins. Further, this study sought to determine exogenous variables influencing dairy farms’ economic performance. The study used a mixed research design (quantitative and focus group discussions) with key informants in the dairy sector in the 2 study counties. Purposive sampling was used to select the farms and the county based dairy data gathering and monitoring harmonized profit and loss tool developed by the Kenya Dairy Board (KDB), Kenya Dairy Processors Association (KDPA) and State Department of Livestock was used to collect data. The 2 counties differ in the level of smallholder dairy development. Nandi County was classified as a highly dairy county while Makueni County as a potentially dairy county hence their selection for inclusion in this study. Gross margins were determined for all farms by total cash income less total cash costs, while multivariable regression using Akaike Information Criterion was used to determine exogenous variables influencing gross margin levels. The findings revealed that dairy enterprises alone have positive albeit minimal gross margins while the typical smallholder mixed farming (dairy and other enterprises) result in losses in both study counties. On average, a farm in Nandi and Makueni counties made a profit of Kenya shilling (Ksh.) 2,848.30 and 880.80 per year respectively. Although the differences were not statistically significant (p>0.5) due to high variances, incomes in Ksh. from milk (Nandi: 21,470.3, Makueni: 51,555.3) and manure (Nandi: 7,609.2, Makueni: 605.9); and costs of feed (Nandi: 23,337.0, Makueni: 37,806.4), labour (Nandi: 10,792.9, Makueni: 13,943.4), mineral salts (Nandi: 20.9, Makueni: 33.9), artificial insemination (Nandi: 770.9, Makueni: 996.0), veterinary services(Nandi: 1,541.8, Makueni: 1,991.9), transport (Nandi1:130.0, Makueni:2,062.2) and water (Nandi: 187.6, Makueni: 363.5) were significantly different between Nandi and Makueni counties (p=0.00). Final models with exogenous variables had low prediction of gross margins, R²<0.30. Due to the high costs of dairy farm inputs accounting for 94% and 99% in Nandi and Makueni counties respectively, and the involvement in several farm enterprises at the same time, farmers in both counties risk making losses or getting very minimal profits. Policies focused on making farm inputs especially feed and water affordable and accessible to smallholder dairy cattle farmers are highly recommended.

Organizational culture’s influence on the adoption of information management technology in construction projects in Nairobi, Kenya

Melody Njuguna — 2025-01-21

The construction industry, being collaborative in nature, has over time grown to accommodate professionals from various backgrounds with varying degrees of human interaction that brings its own organizational culture. This increase in complex and ever-changing construction project activities during the life cycle of construction requires effective communication using appropriate information technology. Many studies have documented the slow uptake of this technology in the industry and have focused on processes and systems when researching the reasons behind it. Human factors, and particularly the unique project organizational culture in construction projects have not been vastly addressed in relation to uptake of information management technology. With reference to the Competing Values Framework the study sought to find out the effect of project organizational culture on information management technology adoption in construction projects in Nairobi, based on the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology. It also described the characteristics of construction project organizational culture, and the perception of respondents on extent of adoption of information management technology and the relationship between the project organizational culture and information management technology adoption. A descriptive cross-sectional study design was used and primary data collected using questionnaires. Quantitative Data was analyzed SPSS v25. The findings were that all four components of the Competing Values Framework (collaboration, competition, creativity and control) were statistically significant in the uptake of information management technology. It was also found that the construction projects environment skews collaborative and control-based in nature, and this requires an enhancement of information management technology that ensures values and common goals of the Clan culture (collaboration) and Hierarchy culture (control), an atmosphere of collectivity, discipline and mutual help, and an emphasis on empowerment and project participant evolvement. Organizational culture therefore has an impact in the uptake of Information Management technology for construction projects.

Determinants of adoption of Bt cotton among smallholder cotton producers in Kitui and Kisumu counties, Kenya.

Collins Kaisha — 2025-01-21

The Government of Kenya acknowledges the importance of the cotton industry in the country's development agenda, particularly under the manufacturing pillar. To revitalize the industry, the government approved Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton for commercial production in 2019. Bt cotton is promoted on the grounds that it is resistant to pests such as bollworms which can lead to a reduction in the use of pesticides, improve productivity, and in the long run deliver increased profits to farmers. While Bt Cotton has been promoted since 2019, evidence of its adoption among smallholder farmers is limited. This study assessed the determinants of Bt-cotton adoption among smallholder cotton producers in Kitui and Kisumu counties, Kenya. Data were collected through a cross-sectional survey of 389 households that were selected randomly in Kisumu (192 households) and Kitui Counties (197 households). Among the total sampled households (389), 242 were cotton farming households and 147 were households that were not growing cotton. However, in this study context, the analysis proceeded with the 242 cotton-growing households. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and Heckman’s two-stage regression model. The descriptive results showed that nearly half (47.5%) of the cotton-producing households were involved in producing the Bt cotton variety. Heckman’s two-stage model showed that increased access to land for farming (p=0.002), access to extension service (p=0.025), and expected benefits of Bt cotton (early maturity (p=0.000), and better quality of fibre had a positive influence (p=0.010) on adoption, while the distance to the output market (p=0.004) and soil fertility (p=0.076) had a negative influence on adoption. The results further showed that the intensity of adoption increased with household expenditure (p=0.012), access to credit (p=0.096), and having a positive perception of Bt cotton being drought tolerant (p=0.024). Larger household sizes (p=0.096), Bt cotton early maturity attribute (p=0.002), crop diversification (p=0.044), and increased access to land (p=0.002) had a negative influence on the intensity of adoption. The results revealed that farm and farmer characteristics, economic, and institutional factors, and attributes of Bt cotton are found to be determinants of the adoption of Bt cotton. The study recommends that the public and private sectors promote access to extension services, markets, and credit to improve the uptake of Bt cotton in Kenya.

Impact of sustained adoption of Climate-Smart Agriculture on crop productivity in the West Usambara Mountains, Tanzania

Emmanuel P. Mzingula — 2025-01-21

Climate change in the West Usambara Mountains has added more challenges to smallholder farmers who are already negatively affected by land degradation. Sustained adoption of Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) can improve crop productivity by addressing challenges posed by both climate change and land degradation. From 2011 to 2019, the Climate Change Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) project disseminated and promoted the use of CSA technologies to improve crop productivity. Understanding the impact of CSA on crop productivity among farming households that received interventions is crucial for advising policy and improving extension services. This study assessed the impact of sustained adoption of CSA on crop productivity after phasing out the CCAFS project. Specifically, the study assessed sustained adoption of CSA technologies and evaluated the impact of CSA on crop productivity after the CCAFS project phased out. A sample of 124 households was selected by using simple random sampling from 140 farming households that received interventions. Methods of data collection were household questionnaire survey, key informant interviews and focus group discussions. Data analysis was conducted by using descriptive analysis, paired-samples t-tests and thematic analysis. Results showed that there was an improvement in sustained adoption of tree planting (from 45% to 68%), organic fertilizers (from 64% to 82%), improved seeds (42% to 85%) and weather information services (from 36% to 72%) compared to adoption at the beginning of the project while sustained adoption of terraces (26%), minimum tillage(21%) and contour ridges(19%) remained low. The t-test shows that sustained CSA had significant impact on crop productivity since it increased crop productivity for maize, Irish potatoes, beans and cabbages by 41.9%, 65.2%, 29.2% and 44.3%, respectively after implementation of the CCAFS project. The study concludes that sustained adoption of CSA increased crop productivity in the study area. This study recommends that policymakers, agricultural extension workers and researchers continue the dissemination and promotion of CSA technologies to improve crop productivity regardless of external assistance.

Subsurface water retention technology does not increase greenhouse gas emissions from sandy soils under semi-arid conditions

Sylus Kipngeno Musei — 2025-01-21

Subsurface water retention technology (SWRT), a polyethylene membrane-based technology, is known to enhance water retention and potentially reduce nutrient leaching beyond the root zone, thus improving crop yields, but its effect on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions remains unclear. This study therefore evaluated the impact of SWRT on soil carbon dioxide (CO₂), nitrous oxide (N₂O) and methane (CH₄) fluxes over two growing seasons (November 2021 to March 2022 and April to August 2022) using maize (Zea mays) as a test crop under rain-fed conditions. This study used six replicate farms in Makueni County, Kenya. In each farm, SWRT were manually installed in two plots, and the control was represented by a plot with no SWRT, with each plot measuring 20 by 10 m. Static chambers were installed, and GHG samples were collected bi-weekly to determine CH₄, CO₂, and N₂O fluxes. SWRT plots emitted lower GHG during both growing seasons than the control plots. The mean daily emissions from SWRT plots ranged between -3.54 to -0.009 g CH₄-C ha^-1 day^-1 , 1790 to 5790 g CO₂-C ha^-1 day^-1 and -0.07 to 2.69 g N₂O-N ha^-1 day^-1 for CH₄, CO₂ and N₂O, respectively. For the control plots CH₄, CO₂ and N₂O emissions ranged between -4.02 to -1.44 g CH₄-C ha^-1 day^-1 , 1980 to 5880 g CO₂-C ha^-1 day^-1 and -0.49 to 40.47 g N₂O-N ha^-1 day^-1 , respectively. Significantly higher plant height, leaf area index (LAI) and aboveground biomass were recorded in SWRT than the control. In both seasons, the differences in N₂O, CH₄ and CO₂ between SWRT and control were however non-significant. As SWRT improved maize growth parameters, it can be regarded as a climate-friendly option as it improves crop growth on sandy soils without increasing GHG emissions.

Beekeepers’ perception of the suitability of climate-smart compliant bee-hive technologies in honey production: The case of Nyandarua and Kajiado counties

Philip Siminyu — 2025-01-21

With increased climate-related challenges, beekeeping practices need to adopt climate-smart technologies to ensure high colonization rates and security against human and animal destruction. This study assessed beekeepers’ perception of the suitability of bee hive technologies for honey production. The study tested the hypothesis that improved bee hive technologies do not increase honey production. A multinomial Logit (MNL) regression model was used to analyze data from 428 randomly selected beekeepers in 2 sub-counties each of Kajiado and Nyandarua Counties where the Kenya Climate Smart Agriculture Project (KCSAP) is being implemented. Most beekeepers preferred the Kenya Top Bar hives (41%) and the Langstroth (36%). Based on the significant MNL at P < 0.01, this study concluded that honey productivity is influenced by the preference of the bee hive types. There is a need for enhanced training in beekeeping on climate-smart practices to increase the adoption of improved hive technologies and honey production.

Effect of pressure and moisture content on physicochemical properties of popped finger millet (Eleusine coracana)

Clarice Koros — 2025-01-21

Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) is a nutritious grain whose traditional processing methods have received inadequate application in modern processing to enhance its commercialization. This study investigated how pressure and moisture content affected the puffing yield, density, expansion ratio, colour, proximate composition, selected minerals and antinutritive factors of popped finger millet grain. Grains were equilibrated at 15,18, or 21% moisture content and popped at 120, 140, or 160 psi. The results show that progressively raising the moisture content and pressure significantly (p≤0.05) increased the popping yield and expansion ratio while reducing density. Pressure and moisture content interactions significantly (p≤0.05) influenced the popping yield, expansion ratio and density. Popped grain lightness and total colour difference significantly (p≤0.05) increased when the moisture content was increased from 15% to 21 %. The redness and browning index were significantly (p≤0.05) reduced when the moisture content and pressure were progressively raised from 15% to 21% and 120 psi to 160 psi respectively. Progressive increase of pressure and moisture content, and their synergistic interactions significantly (p≤0.05) reduced the crude fat and moisture contents of popped grain. Moreover, crude protein significantly (p≤0.05) improved when pressure was increased. Zinc and iron and total phenol contents significantly (p≤0.05) increased when the popping pressures and moisture content were progressively raised from 120 psi to 160 psi, and 15% to 21% respectively. Phytates content declined significantly (p≤0.05) when pressure was increased from 120psi to 140 psi or 160psi.Tannins significantly reduced (p≤0.05) when the moisture content was raised from 15% to 21 %. These findings demonstrate that popping finger millet can improve its nutritional value making it a viable avenue for value addition.

Performance efficiency of locally available low-cost adsorbents in purification of biogas for high grade applications

Victor O. Odero — 2025-01-21

Despite having several benefits, the uptake of biogas as a green fuel in rural areas has remained low. One of the technical challenges responsible for slow biogas adoption rate in rural households is biogas contamination. Biogas requires treatment before use, this includes; purification and upgrading. Purification involves the removal of impurities whereas upgrading aims to convert the biogas to a higher fuel standard by increasing its low calorific value. The aimof this study was to develop and test the performance of a cost-effective and affordable system for purification of biogas using low-cost absorbents, thus upgrading biogas to a sustainable clean cooking fuel. The study employed an experimental research design. A pilot domestic scale biogas cleaning system was set up at the Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT) IEET workshop. The study sought to determine the potential and efficiency of locally available and low-cost adsorbents in purification of raw biogas. The raw biogas was passed through the cleaning units, each packed with individual adsorbent. Analysis ofthe biogas for methane (CH4) composition was done before and after each cleaning unit using digital biogas analyzer model GASTiger 2000, supplied by Yantai Stark Instrument Company limited. The locally available low-cost adsorbents used in the study were; red soil, charcoal, steel wool, clay soil, iron shavings and wood ash. This study also tested the effect of the various physical interfaces of the adsorbents, where a cleaning unit packed with two or more of the adsorbents was used. The study shows that adsorption by clay soil and charcoal gave highest methane concentrations at 67.48±2.33% and 67.20±1.08% respectively from 58.47±2.12% in raw biogas. Cleaning by the other adsorbents; red soil, wood ash, steel-wool and iron shavings improved methane concentrations to 61.76±0.71%, 60.75±2.47%, 58.97±1.92% and 58.56±1.96% respectively. Combination of the various adsorbents into one cleaning unit further improved methane levels to 69.83±1.57%. These results, despite exhibiting relatively low adsorption of the impurities in raw biogas, positively confirmed that indeed the low-cost adsorbent materials have a potential in biogas purification. Modification of these low-cost adsorbent materials, such as use of activated charcoal, would be one of the ways to improve their performance. However, this study specifically sought to explore the potential of these low-cost adsorbents in purification of raw biogas, in their natural state. This study recommends further exploration of other relatively less technical methods such as water scrubbing that could be coupled with the use of natural low-cost adsorbents to improve the purification of raw biogas to near, if not equivalent to, natural gas (that is in the regions of 97-100% CH₄ concentration). Thus, for a possible adoption as an alternative means of cleaning and upgrading raw biogas to a clean cooking fuel.