Main Article Content
HIV/AIDS knowledge, attitudes, beliefs and behaviours among rural South African youth: Implications for health education
Abstract
The aim of the study was to evaluate data on behavioural indicators in relation to the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)/Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD) prevention and occurrence in a rural youth population in South Africa. A representative community sample of youth using a three-stage cluster sampling method was chosen for a household survey, and qualitative data were obtained from the youths using ten focus group discussions. The survey sample included 421 youths: 189 (44.9%) male, and 232 (55.1%) female, whose ages ranged from 15 to 24 years (M=20.8 years, SD=3.6). The questionnaire included 71 items on HIV/AIDS/STD related knowledge, attitudes, beliefs and behaviours. Results indicated a mean HIV/AIDS knowledge score of 7.11 (range 0-9) indicating a moderately adequate knowledge. HIV/AIDS knowledge was associated with more consistent condom use, and with a more supportive attitude towards persons with HIV or AIDS. At first sexual intercourse, 19.4% of the sexually active youth had used a condom, whereas 80.6% had not, 41.4% men and 25.3% women admitted they had more than one sexual partner other than commercial partner (partner with whom you had sex in exchange for money) in the last 12 months. A large group of the women (47.6%) and men (32.7%) participants indicated that they never used a condom with their non-commercial partner during the past 12 months. Among the sexually active youth 18% of the men and 13.4% of women had had sex with a commercial partner in the last 12 months. Among female youth 15.2% reported to have become victims of forceful sex during the last 12 months. For youth the major reasons for not using a condom with a non-commercial partner were 'not available', followed by 'did not like them', 'did not think of it', 'other' (mainly trust in partner), and 'partner objected'. There was a high incidence of self-reported genital discharge/ulcer/sore within the last 12 months among sexually active youths (12% in males and 5.2% in females). Findings are discussed in relation to implications for health education.
Key words: HIV/AIDS/STD knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, behaviour, rural youth, South Africa.
2. MODIFIABLE RISK FACTORS OF CORONARY HEART DISEASE IN MALE FIRST TIME ENTRANTS TO A HEALTH AND FITNESS CENTRE IN SOUTH AFRICA
Marius F. Coetsee
The objective of the study was to draw up a profile of modifiable risk factors among male first time entrants to a health and fitness centre. Data for 257 males with mean age of 31 years were documented between 1999 and 2001. All assessments were done at the Empangeni Health and Fitness Centre. The following parameters were recorded: personal details, health status, smoking habits, mass, height, body composition, blood pressure, total cholesterol, physical working capacity and predicted aerobic capacity. The majority of subjects (50.9 %) displayed two or more, 27.3 % three or more and 8.2 % four or more, risk factors for coronary heart disease (CHD). Of the 253 subjects tested 43.2 % were inactive before they joined the health and fitness centre. Smoking ³ 10 cigarettes per day was prevalent in 19.2 % of subjects. At risk due to obesity (body fat >20 %) was prevalent in 45.9 % of subjects and 36.2 % had a BMI of >27.8 kg.m-2. Elevated cholesterol (>5.2 mmol.l-1) was found in 51.1 % of the subjects. Hypertension (systolic >140 mmHg and/or diastolic >90 mmHg) were prevalent in 16.1 % of subjects. It is clear that much room for improvement in the modifiable risk factors exists in the subjects. The findings have important implications for health and fitness providers in planning preventive strategies.
Key words: Modifiable CHD risk factors, exercise, health and fitness, males.
3. EFFECTS OF 8 WEEKS JOGGING PROGRAMME ON BODY FAT IN UNTRAINED WOMEN
Danladi I. Musa.
This study was designed to measure the effects of 8 weeks continuous jogging programme on abdominal fat and total adiposity in 27 untrained female undergraduate students aged 21- 39 years. Subjects were randomly assigned to a control group (n = 13) and a continuous jogging group (n = 14). Subjects in the experimental group jogged 3.2 km three times a week for 8 weeks at an intensity of 80% of their age predicted maximal heart rate. Abdominal fat and total fat mass (TFM) were estimated before and after the training programme. Results indicated no significant (p > 0.05) training effect on abdominal fat but a significant (p < 0.05) reduction in TFM was observed. It was concluded that exercise training of 8-week duration may have significant impact on reduction of total adiposity but not abdominal fat in non athletic women.
Key words: Aerobic training, visceral fat, total adiposity, untrained women.
4. PREVALENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF MUSCLE-IMBALANCE IN THE HUMAN BODY: A REVIEW
J.M. Loots, Maureen Loots and B.J.M. Steyn
For more than a century it has been recognized that variations from normal in the anatomy and biomechanics of man may have a practical bearing on medical problems. In this paper an aspect of this kind of deviation namely muscle-imbalance, is reviewed. Muscle-imbalance could be defined as a specific movement dysfunction, which manifests itself in muscles that tend to become tight, or short and hypertonic and are readily activated in most movement patterns. Other muscles react by inhibition, inhibition atrophy and weakness. Muscle groups can functionally be divided into muscles prone to tightness and those prone to weakness. The phenomenon of muscle imbalance is pandemic, and may contribute to problems such as poor posture, low back pain. Significant is the fact that muscle imbalance may influence the motor patterning process.
Key words: Muscle imbalance, low back pain, posture, malposture, withdrawal response.
5. AN ANALYSIS OF THE FITNESS DEMANDS AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF NORMS FOR U-21 SOUTH AFRICAN PROVINCIAL RUGBY PLAYERS
Yoga Coopoo and Amerson N. Govender
Most sports loving countries in the world value test and measurements in sport science as the primary route to success in any code of sport. Empirical studies in sport, in the field of fitness evaluation, impact on coaching and development through the application of anthropometrical and physiological testing. This study was aimed at obtaining data on fitness levels of the U-21 South African provincial rugby players so that normative tables could be compiled for the forwards, backs and combined team. This study also provides an insight into the fitness demands of U-21 provincial rugby players on the basis of the two major playing units in a rugby game, namely the forwards and the backs. The test battery evaluated body composition, flexibility, explosive strength, dynamic strength, cardio-respiratory endurance, anaerobic capacity and agility at the beginning of a season. Data from one hundred and twelve players were categorized in three groups: forwards (57), backs (55) and the combined team (112). Means and standard deviations were computed for all tests. The t-test was applied to the means of both the forwards and backs for each test to establish the level of difference. Normative tables have been established for the forwards, backs and the combined team. No significant difference was found between backs, and forwards, except percent body fat, lean body mass and grip strength (p£ 0.05). The fitness demands for backs and forwards appear to be similar suggesting that a single set of norms will suffice for the whole team. The comparison of the two sets of norms for three similar tests indicate that the U-21 provincial norms compare favourably with senior club norms. The implications of the findings on a descriptive basis indicate that the U-21 provincial player is physiologically ready to participate at senior level. With careful guidance and mentoring, and of course, effective training,, the potential lies for participation at national level.
Key words: Field testing, fitness, norms, rugby players.
6. LEISURE-TIME PHYSICAL ACTIVITY: PREVALENCE AND PSYCHOSOCIAL CORRELATES IN A SAMPLE OF BLACK SOUTH AFRICAN YOUTH
Karl Peltzer
This study investigated the prevalence and psychosocial correlates of leisure-time physical exercise among South African university students. The sample included 793 Black university students from non-health courses, chosen at random from the University of the North, South Africa. The students were 370 (46.7%) males and 423 (53.3%) females in the age range of 18 to 25 years (M age 21.0 years, SD=3.48). Results indicated that the prevalence of leisure time physical exercise in the two weeks prior to the study was 58.3% in men and 39.1% in women (p<.001). The proportion of students who were aware of the association between physical activity and heart disease was 37.7% among men and 38.9% among women (38.9%). The wish to increase exercise participation was positively associated with exercise status and frequency of excercise. Multiple logistic regression for women identified health benefits and healthy diet and for men health benefits, healthy diet, non-drinking and internal health locus of control as independent predictors for physical exercise. The study found a moderate covariation among health behaviours such as exercise, abstinence from alcohol and diet, which have a number of practical and theoretical implications for health education programmes.
Key words: Leisure-time physical activity, prevalence, psychosocial correlates, Black university students, South Africa.
7. TESTS OF COURAGE DURING ADOLESCENCE
Jürgen Raithel
In an explorative study nine girls and nine boys aged 16 to 18 were questioned about their experience with tests of courage. The study employed a qualitative interview technique. The study was able to show that tests of courage corresponding to initiation rites in traditional societies support the demonstrative function of self-control and willpower as well as the acceptance into a (peer) group. The test of courage, especially in form of physical activities, for boys takes over a function of gender identity reproduction through a symbolic gender initiation. Tests of courage fulfil an important developmental function in respect to the shaping of the identity and the growing adolescents' independence.
Key words: Tests of courage, masculine, feminine, ordination, initiation, adolescence.
8. A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF TABLE MOUNTAIN AS AN ICON FOR RECREATION IN SOUTH AFRICA
Floris J.G. van der Merwe
Table Mountain with its distinctive shape, is without doubt one of the best known mountains in the world. Since the 15th century sailors experienced great happiness and relief when first seeing its imposing mass. The first European to climb this mountain was Antonio de Saldanha in 1503. Although his reason was to determine the position of his fleet, thousands upon thousands of climbers have followed his example since then and for various other reasons: In 1797 Joshua Penny hid on the mountain for 14 months after deserting the British navy, some climbed the mountain for astrological reasons, some to collect species of rock or indigenous plants, while the majority did it for the challenge its majestic aura creates, in other words for recreation. Accidents, some fatal, led to the foundation of the Mountain Club of South Africa in 1891. This club subsequently became the cradle of mountaineering in South Africa. In 1894 only four or five routes were known, all of them easy walks. Within 10 years there were 50 and today there are up to a 1000 routes, of which well over 90% are rock-climbing routes. Table Mountain is not only famous for walking and rock-climbing, but also for caving and hang-gliding, making it one of the most dangerous playgrounds in an urban setting. Mountain Rescue, an institution that celebrated its jubilee in 2000, receives up to 100 calls per annum.
Key words: Table Mountain, mountaineering, recreation, history.
9. Current level of gross motor development of 3-6 year-old children in Potchefstroom, SOUTH AFRICA
Dorita du Toit and Anita E. Pienaar
Research shows that preschool children are physically not as active as in the past, leading to the question of the current level of gross motor development of preschool children in urban areas in South Africa. The purpose of this study was to establish and describe specific gross motor components in a group of 3-6 year old urban South African children and compare the results to standardized norms and developmental criteria. A total of 462 3-6 year old children (215 males and 247 females) was tested on 8 gross motor tasks, and compared to norms and criteria as found in the literature. The 3, 4 and 5 year olds compared favourably to their counterparts in the tests for hopping, one leg balance and "jumping jacks". The 5 year olds compared favourably in standing long jump and skipping, while the 3 and 4 year olds compared favourably in the throwing test. Balance walk and catching ability of the 3, 4 and 5 year olds, standing long jump in the 4 year olds and throwing in the 5 year old group were lower than the norms used. The 6 year old group scored lower than the norms and criteria in all the tests except for standing long jump, where they scored higher than the norms. The implications for school readiness of the below-average level of gross motor development of the 6 year olds in this study are discussed.
Key words: Gross motor development level, preschool children, norms, criteria.
10. GOAL ORIENTATION, INTRA- AND INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS IN COMPETITIVE SPORT
Ben J.M. Steyn, Morné Steenkamp and Anneliese E. Goslin
The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of intrapersonal (sport participants relationship with him/herself), interpersonal relations (sport participants relations with parents and coaches) and the relations between the goal orientation of the participant and his/her perception of the goal orientation of the parent/coach. The standardised TEOSQ (Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire) of Duda (1989) and intra- and interpersonal relations scale of Minnaar (1997) were administered to 112 male and female South African competitive sport participants between the ages of 17 and 25 years. The results of the study confirmed the hypotheses that positive relationships exist between goal orientation of parents/coaches and participants as well as between intra- and interpersonal relations of the participant. The hypothesis of positive relations between a constructive intrapersonal relation and task orientation and a negative relation with ego orientation in sport, could only partially be verified.
Key words: Goal orientation, self-concept, intra- and interrelations, task orientation, ego orientation, competitive sport.
11. SPORT IN SOUTH AFRICA: A SOCIO-POLITICAL PERSPECTIVE
H. Bauhaus and P.P.J. Oosthuizen
This article entails a brief resume of the evolutionary development of sport and sport legislation in the Republic of South Africa. In recent times South Africa has made concerted efforts to adapt sport with the demands of the modern era. The adaptations have primarily occurred as a result of political ideologies and constitutional developments. Sport and sport legislation has evolved in consistency with the constitution of the Republic of South Africa. The constitution prescribes acceptable norms to which society has to comply; consequently the status of sport, the participants therein, and standards within the South African sporting sphere have improved. Imbalances such as discrimination and inequality have been (and continue to be) rectified within South African sport. In conclusion, the analysis propagates that sport and its relevant legislation is a viable activity that brings a divided nation together and promotes the interests of the entire population, advancing into the new millennium.
Key words: South Africa, evolutionary development, apartheid, sport, legislation, constitution, future prospects.
12. KILLING FIELDS OF SOCCER: VIOLENCE, VICTIMS AND VILLIANS
Cora Burnett
The destructive nature of soccer violence and the resultant deaths of hundreds of supporters since the sixties have directed academic enquiry and scholarly investigation. The aim of this study was to utilize a synthesis of theoretical paradigms in order to provide some explanations for this complex and multifaceted local manifestation. Data was collected from major English and Afrikaans newspapers from April 1977 to May 2001, in which 180 incidents of soccer violence were reported. The interviewing of soccer officials (n=7, the conducting of focus groups with soccer supporters (n=20) and the attending of matches provided the ethnological background and context for analysis. The tabling and discussing of 23 occurrences of soccer-related violence between Kaizer Chiefs and Orlando Pirates explored the nature of this local sociological phenomenon. Different layers of explanations were offered, including the relevance of class-based structural ";fault lines";, ideology, socialization patterns, poverty-related manifestations and situational factors that may sporadically trigger violent behaviour. Soccer violence and crowd behaviour should be understood and addressed within the wider social context without merely shifting the blame from ";victims"; to ";villains";, which would at best provide dichotomous and rhetorical answers.
Key words: Soccer violence, theoretical explanations, South Africa, Orlando Pirates, Kaizer Chiefs.
13. CHALLENGES FOR SPORT FOR ALL UNDER THE SOCIO- ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF SOUTH AFRICA
Anneliese Goslin
";Sport for all"; is accepted and implemented globally as an inclusive, compensatory social tool. To have a sustainable impact it has to address and understand the socio-economic conditions of a specific area or community. In this study the manifestation of Sport for all as such a tool in the South African society is evaluated by investigating the interconnectedness of Sport for all provision and the prevailing socio-economic conditions. Five challenges for sustainable Sport for all provision crystallize from the discussions: democratisation of Sport for all, the juxtaposition of Africanisation and globalisation, access and equity, empowerment and development and integrated and sustainable harnessing of resources. The article concludes by presenting critical performance indicators for sustainable Sport for all delivery in South Africa.
Key words: Sport for All, challenges, South Africa, critical performance indicators.
14. GLOBALIZATION AND INEQUALITIES IN A THIRD WORLD SPORT CONTEXT
Cora Burnett
The complex reality of the globalization process is explored through analyses of the discourse that since the nineties there has increasingly been debated in the field of sport sociology. Most prominent theoretical perspectives including modernism, post-modernism, broad Marxist traditions and the figurational approach served to explain the manifestations of globalization in a post-colonial third world context. Global influences are embodied in internationally sponsored projects that were implemented in the late nineties and illustrate the dynamics of first world sports development initiatives in South Africa. Data from different studies and media debates were utilized to substantiate the discussion of local sport-related manifestations relating to the effect of major events (Olympic Games), the media and development initiatives. Micro-level research conducted at the 1999 All Africa Games, in which 273 (62%) South African athletes representing 17 different sport codes completed questionnaires, mediated the experiences, perceptions and social worlds of these national athletes. Local manifestations of globally informed ideology, structures and power relations are discussed against the backdrop of national and political priorities, the context of poverty and hierarchical social structures. The inequalities of South African sporting practices are contextualized as they find expression in the lack of resources, class inequalities, ethnocentric frameworks and political controversies. In search of a national identity, elite sports participation becomes a double-edged sword in challenging and perpetuating socio-cultural realities and creating new inequalities.
Key words: Globalization, third world, inequality, South Africa, athletes.
(Af. J. Physical, Health Education, Recreation and Dance: 2002 8(1): 1-25)
Key words: HIV/AIDS/STD knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, behaviour, rural youth, South Africa.
2. MODIFIABLE RISK FACTORS OF CORONARY HEART DISEASE IN MALE FIRST TIME ENTRANTS TO A HEALTH AND FITNESS CENTRE IN SOUTH AFRICA
Marius F. Coetsee
The objective of the study was to draw up a profile of modifiable risk factors among male first time entrants to a health and fitness centre. Data for 257 males with mean age of 31 years were documented between 1999 and 2001. All assessments were done at the Empangeni Health and Fitness Centre. The following parameters were recorded: personal details, health status, smoking habits, mass, height, body composition, blood pressure, total cholesterol, physical working capacity and predicted aerobic capacity. The majority of subjects (50.9 %) displayed two or more, 27.3 % three or more and 8.2 % four or more, risk factors for coronary heart disease (CHD). Of the 253 subjects tested 43.2 % were inactive before they joined the health and fitness centre. Smoking ³ 10 cigarettes per day was prevalent in 19.2 % of subjects. At risk due to obesity (body fat >20 %) was prevalent in 45.9 % of subjects and 36.2 % had a BMI of >27.8 kg.m-2. Elevated cholesterol (>5.2 mmol.l-1) was found in 51.1 % of the subjects. Hypertension (systolic >140 mmHg and/or diastolic >90 mmHg) were prevalent in 16.1 % of subjects. It is clear that much room for improvement in the modifiable risk factors exists in the subjects. The findings have important implications for health and fitness providers in planning preventive strategies.
Key words: Modifiable CHD risk factors, exercise, health and fitness, males.
3. EFFECTS OF 8 WEEKS JOGGING PROGRAMME ON BODY FAT IN UNTRAINED WOMEN
Danladi I. Musa.
This study was designed to measure the effects of 8 weeks continuous jogging programme on abdominal fat and total adiposity in 27 untrained female undergraduate students aged 21- 39 years. Subjects were randomly assigned to a control group (n = 13) and a continuous jogging group (n = 14). Subjects in the experimental group jogged 3.2 km three times a week for 8 weeks at an intensity of 80% of their age predicted maximal heart rate. Abdominal fat and total fat mass (TFM) were estimated before and after the training programme. Results indicated no significant (p > 0.05) training effect on abdominal fat but a significant (p < 0.05) reduction in TFM was observed. It was concluded that exercise training of 8-week duration may have significant impact on reduction of total adiposity but not abdominal fat in non athletic women.
Key words: Aerobic training, visceral fat, total adiposity, untrained women.
4. PREVALENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF MUSCLE-IMBALANCE IN THE HUMAN BODY: A REVIEW
J.M. Loots, Maureen Loots and B.J.M. Steyn
For more than a century it has been recognized that variations from normal in the anatomy and biomechanics of man may have a practical bearing on medical problems. In this paper an aspect of this kind of deviation namely muscle-imbalance, is reviewed. Muscle-imbalance could be defined as a specific movement dysfunction, which manifests itself in muscles that tend to become tight, or short and hypertonic and are readily activated in most movement patterns. Other muscles react by inhibition, inhibition atrophy and weakness. Muscle groups can functionally be divided into muscles prone to tightness and those prone to weakness. The phenomenon of muscle imbalance is pandemic, and may contribute to problems such as poor posture, low back pain. Significant is the fact that muscle imbalance may influence the motor patterning process.
Key words: Muscle imbalance, low back pain, posture, malposture, withdrawal response.
5. AN ANALYSIS OF THE FITNESS DEMANDS AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF NORMS FOR U-21 SOUTH AFRICAN PROVINCIAL RUGBY PLAYERS
Yoga Coopoo and Amerson N. Govender
Most sports loving countries in the world value test and measurements in sport science as the primary route to success in any code of sport. Empirical studies in sport, in the field of fitness evaluation, impact on coaching and development through the application of anthropometrical and physiological testing. This study was aimed at obtaining data on fitness levels of the U-21 South African provincial rugby players so that normative tables could be compiled for the forwards, backs and combined team. This study also provides an insight into the fitness demands of U-21 provincial rugby players on the basis of the two major playing units in a rugby game, namely the forwards and the backs. The test battery evaluated body composition, flexibility, explosive strength, dynamic strength, cardio-respiratory endurance, anaerobic capacity and agility at the beginning of a season. Data from one hundred and twelve players were categorized in three groups: forwards (57), backs (55) and the combined team (112). Means and standard deviations were computed for all tests. The t-test was applied to the means of both the forwards and backs for each test to establish the level of difference. Normative tables have been established for the forwards, backs and the combined team. No significant difference was found between backs, and forwards, except percent body fat, lean body mass and grip strength (p£ 0.05). The fitness demands for backs and forwards appear to be similar suggesting that a single set of norms will suffice for the whole team. The comparison of the two sets of norms for three similar tests indicate that the U-21 provincial norms compare favourably with senior club norms. The implications of the findings on a descriptive basis indicate that the U-21 provincial player is physiologically ready to participate at senior level. With careful guidance and mentoring, and of course, effective training,, the potential lies for participation at national level.
Key words: Field testing, fitness, norms, rugby players.
6. LEISURE-TIME PHYSICAL ACTIVITY: PREVALENCE AND PSYCHOSOCIAL CORRELATES IN A SAMPLE OF BLACK SOUTH AFRICAN YOUTH
Karl Peltzer
This study investigated the prevalence and psychosocial correlates of leisure-time physical exercise among South African university students. The sample included 793 Black university students from non-health courses, chosen at random from the University of the North, South Africa. The students were 370 (46.7%) males and 423 (53.3%) females in the age range of 18 to 25 years (M age 21.0 years, SD=3.48). Results indicated that the prevalence of leisure time physical exercise in the two weeks prior to the study was 58.3% in men and 39.1% in women (p<.001). The proportion of students who were aware of the association between physical activity and heart disease was 37.7% among men and 38.9% among women (38.9%). The wish to increase exercise participation was positively associated with exercise status and frequency of excercise. Multiple logistic regression for women identified health benefits and healthy diet and for men health benefits, healthy diet, non-drinking and internal health locus of control as independent predictors for physical exercise. The study found a moderate covariation among health behaviours such as exercise, abstinence from alcohol and diet, which have a number of practical and theoretical implications for health education programmes.
Key words: Leisure-time physical activity, prevalence, psychosocial correlates, Black university students, South Africa.
7. TESTS OF COURAGE DURING ADOLESCENCE
Jürgen Raithel
In an explorative study nine girls and nine boys aged 16 to 18 were questioned about their experience with tests of courage. The study employed a qualitative interview technique. The study was able to show that tests of courage corresponding to initiation rites in traditional societies support the demonstrative function of self-control and willpower as well as the acceptance into a (peer) group. The test of courage, especially in form of physical activities, for boys takes over a function of gender identity reproduction through a symbolic gender initiation. Tests of courage fulfil an important developmental function in respect to the shaping of the identity and the growing adolescents' independence.
Key words: Tests of courage, masculine, feminine, ordination, initiation, adolescence.
8. A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF TABLE MOUNTAIN AS AN ICON FOR RECREATION IN SOUTH AFRICA
Floris J.G. van der Merwe
Table Mountain with its distinctive shape, is without doubt one of the best known mountains in the world. Since the 15th century sailors experienced great happiness and relief when first seeing its imposing mass. The first European to climb this mountain was Antonio de Saldanha in 1503. Although his reason was to determine the position of his fleet, thousands upon thousands of climbers have followed his example since then and for various other reasons: In 1797 Joshua Penny hid on the mountain for 14 months after deserting the British navy, some climbed the mountain for astrological reasons, some to collect species of rock or indigenous plants, while the majority did it for the challenge its majestic aura creates, in other words for recreation. Accidents, some fatal, led to the foundation of the Mountain Club of South Africa in 1891. This club subsequently became the cradle of mountaineering in South Africa. In 1894 only four or five routes were known, all of them easy walks. Within 10 years there were 50 and today there are up to a 1000 routes, of which well over 90% are rock-climbing routes. Table Mountain is not only famous for walking and rock-climbing, but also for caving and hang-gliding, making it one of the most dangerous playgrounds in an urban setting. Mountain Rescue, an institution that celebrated its jubilee in 2000, receives up to 100 calls per annum.
Key words: Table Mountain, mountaineering, recreation, history.
9. Current level of gross motor development of 3-6 year-old children in Potchefstroom, SOUTH AFRICA
Dorita du Toit and Anita E. Pienaar
Research shows that preschool children are physically not as active as in the past, leading to the question of the current level of gross motor development of preschool children in urban areas in South Africa. The purpose of this study was to establish and describe specific gross motor components in a group of 3-6 year old urban South African children and compare the results to standardized norms and developmental criteria. A total of 462 3-6 year old children (215 males and 247 females) was tested on 8 gross motor tasks, and compared to norms and criteria as found in the literature. The 3, 4 and 5 year olds compared favourably to their counterparts in the tests for hopping, one leg balance and "jumping jacks". The 5 year olds compared favourably in standing long jump and skipping, while the 3 and 4 year olds compared favourably in the throwing test. Balance walk and catching ability of the 3, 4 and 5 year olds, standing long jump in the 4 year olds and throwing in the 5 year old group were lower than the norms used. The 6 year old group scored lower than the norms and criteria in all the tests except for standing long jump, where they scored higher than the norms. The implications for school readiness of the below-average level of gross motor development of the 6 year olds in this study are discussed.
Key words: Gross motor development level, preschool children, norms, criteria.
10. GOAL ORIENTATION, INTRA- AND INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS IN COMPETITIVE SPORT
Ben J.M. Steyn, Morné Steenkamp and Anneliese E. Goslin
The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of intrapersonal (sport participants relationship with him/herself), interpersonal relations (sport participants relations with parents and coaches) and the relations between the goal orientation of the participant and his/her perception of the goal orientation of the parent/coach. The standardised TEOSQ (Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire) of Duda (1989) and intra- and interpersonal relations scale of Minnaar (1997) were administered to 112 male and female South African competitive sport participants between the ages of 17 and 25 years. The results of the study confirmed the hypotheses that positive relationships exist between goal orientation of parents/coaches and participants as well as between intra- and interpersonal relations of the participant. The hypothesis of positive relations between a constructive intrapersonal relation and task orientation and a negative relation with ego orientation in sport, could only partially be verified.
Key words: Goal orientation, self-concept, intra- and interrelations, task orientation, ego orientation, competitive sport.
11. SPORT IN SOUTH AFRICA: A SOCIO-POLITICAL PERSPECTIVE
H. Bauhaus and P.P.J. Oosthuizen
This article entails a brief resume of the evolutionary development of sport and sport legislation in the Republic of South Africa. In recent times South Africa has made concerted efforts to adapt sport with the demands of the modern era. The adaptations have primarily occurred as a result of political ideologies and constitutional developments. Sport and sport legislation has evolved in consistency with the constitution of the Republic of South Africa. The constitution prescribes acceptable norms to which society has to comply; consequently the status of sport, the participants therein, and standards within the South African sporting sphere have improved. Imbalances such as discrimination and inequality have been (and continue to be) rectified within South African sport. In conclusion, the analysis propagates that sport and its relevant legislation is a viable activity that brings a divided nation together and promotes the interests of the entire population, advancing into the new millennium.
Key words: South Africa, evolutionary development, apartheid, sport, legislation, constitution, future prospects.
12. KILLING FIELDS OF SOCCER: VIOLENCE, VICTIMS AND VILLIANS
Cora Burnett
The destructive nature of soccer violence and the resultant deaths of hundreds of supporters since the sixties have directed academic enquiry and scholarly investigation. The aim of this study was to utilize a synthesis of theoretical paradigms in order to provide some explanations for this complex and multifaceted local manifestation. Data was collected from major English and Afrikaans newspapers from April 1977 to May 2001, in which 180 incidents of soccer violence were reported. The interviewing of soccer officials (n=7, the conducting of focus groups with soccer supporters (n=20) and the attending of matches provided the ethnological background and context for analysis. The tabling and discussing of 23 occurrences of soccer-related violence between Kaizer Chiefs and Orlando Pirates explored the nature of this local sociological phenomenon. Different layers of explanations were offered, including the relevance of class-based structural ";fault lines";, ideology, socialization patterns, poverty-related manifestations and situational factors that may sporadically trigger violent behaviour. Soccer violence and crowd behaviour should be understood and addressed within the wider social context without merely shifting the blame from ";victims"; to ";villains";, which would at best provide dichotomous and rhetorical answers.
Key words: Soccer violence, theoretical explanations, South Africa, Orlando Pirates, Kaizer Chiefs.
13. CHALLENGES FOR SPORT FOR ALL UNDER THE SOCIO- ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF SOUTH AFRICA
Anneliese Goslin
";Sport for all"; is accepted and implemented globally as an inclusive, compensatory social tool. To have a sustainable impact it has to address and understand the socio-economic conditions of a specific area or community. In this study the manifestation of Sport for all as such a tool in the South African society is evaluated by investigating the interconnectedness of Sport for all provision and the prevailing socio-economic conditions. Five challenges for sustainable Sport for all provision crystallize from the discussions: democratisation of Sport for all, the juxtaposition of Africanisation and globalisation, access and equity, empowerment and development and integrated and sustainable harnessing of resources. The article concludes by presenting critical performance indicators for sustainable Sport for all delivery in South Africa.
Key words: Sport for All, challenges, South Africa, critical performance indicators.
14. GLOBALIZATION AND INEQUALITIES IN A THIRD WORLD SPORT CONTEXT
Cora Burnett
The complex reality of the globalization process is explored through analyses of the discourse that since the nineties there has increasingly been debated in the field of sport sociology. Most prominent theoretical perspectives including modernism, post-modernism, broad Marxist traditions and the figurational approach served to explain the manifestations of globalization in a post-colonial third world context. Global influences are embodied in internationally sponsored projects that were implemented in the late nineties and illustrate the dynamics of first world sports development initiatives in South Africa. Data from different studies and media debates were utilized to substantiate the discussion of local sport-related manifestations relating to the effect of major events (Olympic Games), the media and development initiatives. Micro-level research conducted at the 1999 All Africa Games, in which 273 (62%) South African athletes representing 17 different sport codes completed questionnaires, mediated the experiences, perceptions and social worlds of these national athletes. Local manifestations of globally informed ideology, structures and power relations are discussed against the backdrop of national and political priorities, the context of poverty and hierarchical social structures. The inequalities of South African sporting practices are contextualized as they find expression in the lack of resources, class inequalities, ethnocentric frameworks and political controversies. In search of a national identity, elite sports participation becomes a double-edged sword in challenging and perpetuating socio-cultural realities and creating new inequalities.
Key words: Globalization, third world, inequality, South Africa, athletes.
(Af. J. Physical, Health Education, Recreation and Dance: 2002 8(1): 1-25)
